Qin dynasty

This article is about the first imperial Chinese dynasty. Not to be confused with the Qing dynasty, the final such dynasty.

"Qin Empire" redirects here. For other uses, see Qin Empire (disambiguation).

Qin 秦
221–206 BC
Heirloom Seal of the Realm
Territory controlled by the Qin c. 210 BC
Capital	Xianyang
Common languages	Old Chinese
Government	Absolute monarchy
Emperor
• 221–210 BC	Qin Shi Huang
• 210–207 BC	Qin Er Shi
Chancellor
• 221–208 BC	Li Si
• 208–207 BC	Zhao Gao
Historical era	Imperial
• Accession of Qin Shi Huang	221 BC
• Death of Qin Shi Huang	210 BC
• Surrender to Liu Bang	206 BC
Area
220 BC	2,300,000 km2 (890,000 sq mi)
Currency	Ban Liang
Preceded by Succeeded by Zhou dynasty Qin (state) Eighteen Kingdoms Han dynasty Nanyue

Qin dynasty
"Qin" in seal script (top) and regular script (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese	秦
Hanyu Pinyin	Qín
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Qín Bopomofo ㄑㄧㄣˊ Gwoyeu Romatzyh Chyn Wade–Giles Chʻin2 Tongyong Pinyin Cín Yale Romanization Chín IPA [tɕʰǐn] Wu Romanization Zin Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Chèuhn Jyutping Ceon4 IPA [tsʰɵn˩] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Chîn Tâi-lô Tsîn Old Chinese Baxter–Sagart (2014) *[dz]i[n]

The Qin dynasty (/tʃɪn/; CHIN) was the first imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, which was a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty that had endured for over five centuries. Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng engaged in a series of wars conquering each of the rival states that had previously pledged fealty to the Zhou. This culminated in 221 BC with the successful unification of China under Qin, which then assumed an imperial prerogative – with Ying Zheng declaring himself to be Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, and bringing an end to the Warring States period (c. 475 – 221 BC). This state of affairs lasted until 206 BC, when the dynasty collapsed in the years following Qin Shi Huang's death. Qin's 15-year existence was the shortest major dynasty in Chinese history, with only two emperors. However, the military and administrative practices instituted by Qin were largely continued by the consummate Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that followed; as a result, the Qin have been credited as the originator of the Chinese imperial system that endured in some form until the Xinhai Revolution in 1911.

Qin was a minor power for the first several centuries of its existence; its strength greatly increased in the 4th century BC, in large part owing to the administrative and military reforms of Shang Yang. The Qin sought to create a strong administrative state that centralised power and a large military supported by a stable economy, which was developed in the Qin homeland and implemented across China following its unification. Reforms included the standardisation of currency, weights, measures, and the writing system, and innovations in weaponry, transportation and tactics used by the military. The central government sought to undercut aristocrats and landowners and administer the peasantry directly, who comprised the vast majority of the population. This enabled numerous large-scale construction projects involving the labour of hundreds of thousands of peasants and convicts – which included the connection of walls along the northern border into would eventually become the Great Wall of China, a large national road system, and the city-sized Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huang guarded by the life-sized Terracotta Army. The state possessed an unprecedented capacity to transform the environment through the management of people and land; as a result, Qin's rise has been characterised as one of the most important events in East Asian environmental history.

When Qin Shi Huang died in 210 BC, two of his advisors placed an heir on the throne in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the dynasty. These advisors squabbled among themselves, resulting in both of their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out and the weakened empire soon fell to Chu general Xiang Yu, who was proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and Liu Bang, who founded the Han dynasty. Han Confucians portrayed the Qin as a monolithic, legalist tyranny, notably citing a purge known as the burning of books and burying of scholars; however, the earliest account of this event is in Sima Qian's Shiji (c. 91 BC), and some modern scholars dispute its veracity.

Origin and development, 9th century – 230 BC

Main article: Qin (state)

See also: Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty

Major states during the Eastern Zhou

According to the Shiji (c. 91 BC), during the 9th century BC, Feizi, a supposed descendant of the ancient political advisor Gao Yao, was granted rule over the settlement of Qin (秦邑) (present-day Qingshui County in Shaanxi). During the rule of King Xiao of Zhou, the eighth king of the Zhou dynasty, this area became known as the state of Qin. In 897 BC, under the Gonghe Regency, the area became a dependency allotted for the purpose of raising and breeding horses. One of Feizi's descendants, Duke Zhuang, became favoured by King Ping of Zhou, the 13th king in that line. As a reward, Zhuang's son, Duke Xiang, was sent eastward as the leader of a war expedition, during which he formally established the Qin.

The state of Qin first began a military expedition into central China in 672 BC, though it did not engage in any serious incursions due to the threat from neighbouring tribesmen. By the dawn of the 4th century BC, the neighbouring tribes had all been either subdued or conquered, and the stage was set for Qin expansionism.

Warring States period, c. 475 – 230 BC

The Warring States, with Qin shown in pink

During the Warring States period (c. 475 – 221 BC), the Qin statesman Shang Yang introduced a series of advantageous military reforms between 361 BC and his death in 338 BC. Yang also helped to construct the Qin capital at Xianyang, a city that ultimately resembled the capitals of the other states.

Qin engaged in practical and ruthless warfare. From the preceding Spring and Autumn period (c. 770 – c. 481 BC), the prevailing philosophy had dictated war as a gentleman's activity; military commanders were instructed to respect what they perceived to be Heaven's laws in battle. For example, during a war Duke Xiang of Song was waging against Chu, he declined an opportunity to Chu forces that were crossing a river. After allowing them to cross and marshal their forces, he was decisively defeated in the ensuing battle. When he admonished by his advisors for excessive courtesy to the enemy, he retorted, "The sage does not crush the feeble, nor give the order for attack until the enemy have formed their ranks." The Qin disregarded this military tradition, taking advantage of their enemy's weaknesses. A nobleman in the state of Wei accused Qin of being "avaricious, perverse, eager for profit, and without sincerity. It knows nothing about etiquette, proper relationships, and virtuous conduct, and if there be an opportunity for material gain, it will disregard its relatives as if they were animals." This, combined with a strong leadership from long-lived rulers, openness to employ talented men from other states, and little internal opposition gave the Qin a strong political base.

The Qin had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They used the newest developments in weaponry and transportation, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior. Qin also possessed geographical advantages, with the fertility and strategic position of its territory protected by mountains making the state a natural stronghold. This was the heart of the Guanzhong region, as opposed to the Yangtze drainage basin. The warlike nature of the Qin in Guanzhong inspired a Han dynasty adage: "Guanzhong produces generals, while Guandong produces ministers." Its expanded agricultural output helped sustain Qin's large army with food and natural resources; the Wei River canal built in 246 BC was particularly significant in this respect.

Unification and expansion, 230–210 BC

Further information: Qin's wars of unification

Campaigns by Qin during the wars of unification (230–221 BC)

During the Warring States period preceding the Qin dynasty, the major states vying for dominance were Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, Wei and Qin. The rulers of these states styled themselves as kings, rather than using the titles of lower nobility they had previously held. However, none elevated himself to believe that he had the Mandate of Heaven, as the Zhou kings had claimed, nor that he had the right to offer sacrifices; they left this to the Zhou rulers.

Before their conquest in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, the Qin suffered several setbacks. Shang Yang was executed in 338 BC by King Huiwen due to a personal grudge harboured from his youth. There was also internal strife over the Qin succession in 307 BC, which decentralised Qin authority somewhat. Qin was defeated by an alliance of the other states in 295 BC, and shortly after suffered another defeat by the state of Zhao, because the majority of their army was then defending against Qi. The aggressive statesman Fan Sui (范雎), however, soon came to power as prime minister even as the problem of the succession was resolved, and he began an expansionist policy that had originated in Jin and Qi, which prompted the Qin to attempt to conquer the other states.

The Qin were swift in their assault on the other states. They first attacked the Han, directly east, and took their capital city of Xinzheng in 230 BC. They then struck northward; the state of Zhao surrendered in 228 BC, and the northernmost state of Yan followed, falling in 226. Next, Qin armies launched assaults to the east, and later the south as well; they took the Wei city of Daliang (now called Kaifeng) in 225 and forced Chu to surrender by 223. Lastly, they deposed the Zhou dynasty's remnants in Luoyang and conquered Qi, taking the city of Linzi in 221 BC.

Upon the completion of Qin's conquests in 221 BC, King Zheng – who had first assumed the throne of the Qin state at age 9 – became the effective ruler of China. The subjugation of the six states was done by King Zheng who had used efficient persuasion and exemplary strategy. He solidified his position as sole ruler with the abdication of his prime minister, Lü Buwei. The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than place the burden on people from the royal family. He then combined the titles of the earlier Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors into the new name "Shi Huangdi", meaning 'First Emperor'. The newly declared emperor ordered all weapons not in the possession of the Qin to be confiscated and melted down. The resulting metal was sufficient to build twelve large ornamental statues at the Qin's newly declared capital at Xianyang.

Southward expansion, 214–206 BC

Main article: Qin campaign against the Baiyue

Qin's expansion to the south (221–206 BC)

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang secured his boundaries to the north with a fraction of his large army (roughly 100,000 men) and sent the majority (500,000 men) of his army south to conquer the territory of the southern tribes. Prior to the events leading to Qin dominance over China, they had gained possession of much of Sichuan to the southwest. The Qin army was unfamiliar with the jungle terrain, and it was defeated by the southern tribes' guerrilla warfare tactics with over 100,000 men lost. However, in the defeat Qin was successful in building a canal to the south, which they used heavily for supplying and reinforcing their troops during their second attack to the south. Building on these gains, the Qin armies conquered the coastal lands surrounding Guangzhou, and took the provinces of Fuzhou and Guilin. They may have struck as far south as Hanoi. After these victories in the south, Qin Shi Huang moved over 100,000 prisoners and exiles to colonise the newly conquered area. In terms of extending the boundaries of his empire, the First Emperor was extremely successful in the south.

Campaign against the Xiongnu, 215 BC

Main article: Qin's campaign against the Xiongnu

However, while the empire at times was extended to the north, the Qin could rarely hold on to the land for long. The tribes of these locations, collectively called the Hu by the Qin, were free from Chinese rule during the majority of the dynasty. Prohibited from trading with Qin peasants, the Xiongnu tribe living in the Ordos region in northwestern China often raided them instead, prompting the Qin to retaliate. After a military campaign led by General Meng Tian, the region was conquered in 215 BC and agriculture was established; the peasants, however, were discontented and later revolted. The succeeding Han dynasty also expanded into the Ordos due to overpopulation, but depleted their resources in the process. Indeed, this was true of the dynasty's borders in multiple directions; modern Xinjiang, Tibet, Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and regions to the southeast were foreign to the Qin, and even areas over which they had military control were culturally distinct.

Collapse and aftermath, 210–202 BC

Further information: Chu–Han Contention

Stone rubbing of a Han dynasty carved relief depicting Jing Ke's assassination attempt on Qin Shi Huang (right) holding an imperial jade disc. Jing Ke (left) is held by a court physician (background). The dagger is stuck in the pillar. A soldier (far right) rushes to save his emperor.

Three assassination attempts were made on Qin Shi Huang, leading him to become paranoid and obsessed with immortality. While on a trip to the eastern frontiers in 210 BC, Qin Shi Huang died in an attempt to procure an elixir of immortality from Taoist magicians, who claimed the elixir was stuck on an island guarded by a sea monster. The chief eunuch, Zhao Gao, and the prime minister, Li Si, hid the news of his death upon their return until they were able to alter his will to place on the throne the dead emperor's most pliable son, Huhai, who took the name of Qin Er Shi. They believed that they would be able to manipulate him to their own ends, and thus effectively control the empire. Qin Er Shi was, indeed, inept and pliable. He executed many ministers and imperial princes, continued massive building projects (one of his most extravagant projects was lacquering the city walls), enlarged the army, increased taxes, and arrested messengers who brought him bad news. As a result, men from all over China revolted, attacking officials, raising armies, and declaring themselves kings of seized territories.

During this time, Li Si and Zhao Gao fell out, and Li Si was executed. Zhao Gao decided to force Qin Er Shi to commit suicide due to Qin Er Shi's incompetence. Upon this, Ziying, a nephew of Qin Er Shi, ascended the throne, and immediately executed Zhao Gao. Increasing unrest spread among the people, largely caused by regional differences which survived despite Qin's attempt to impose uniformity, and many local officials had declared themselves kings. Given this climate, Ziying attempted to cling to his throne by declaring himself one king among all the others. He was undermined by his ineptitude, and popular revolt broke out in 209 BC. When Chu rebels under the lieutenant Liu Bang attacked, a state in such turmoil could not hold for long. Ziying was defeated near the Wei River in 207, and surrendered shortly after; he was executed by the Chu leader Xiang Yu. The Qin capital was destroyed the next year, and this is considered by historians to be the end of the Qin Empire. Liu Bang then betrayed and defeated Xiang Yu, and on 28 February 202 BC declared himself Emperor Gaozu ("High Progenitor") of the new Han dynasty. Despite the short duration of the Qin, it was very influential on the structure of future dynasties.

Culture and society

Domestic life

Layout of the palace's surroundings, west of Xi'an

Excavation of the western platform

A palace gate

Objects found at the site

Remains of the Epang Palace destroyed in 206 BC

The Qin aristocracy were largely similar to the Zhou in culture and daily life, with regional variation generally considered a symbol of the lower classes – and ultimately as contrary to the unification that the government strove to achieve.

Commoners and rural villagers, who made up over 90% of the population, very rarely left the villages or farmsteads where they were born. Forms of employment differed by region, though farming was almost universally common. Professions were hereditary; a father's employment was passed to his eldest son after he died. The Lüshi Chunqiu – a text named for Lü Buwei, the Qin prime minister who sponsored it – gave examples of how, when commoners are obsessed with material wealth, instead of the idealism of a man who "makes things serve him", they were "reduced to the service of things".

Peasants were rarely figured in literature during the Qin dynasty and afterwards; scholars and others of more elite status preferred the excitement of cities and the lure of politics. One notable exception to this was Shennong, the so-called "Divine Father", who taught that households should grow their own food. "If in one's prime he does not plow, someone in the world will grow hungry. If in one's prime she does not weave, someone in the world will be cold." The Qin encouraged this; a ritual was performed once every few years that consisted of important government officials taking turns with the plough on a special field, to create a simulation of government interest and activity within agriculture.

Architecture

Dujiangyan, an irrigation project on the Min River in Sichuan completed by the state of Qin in 256 BC, near the provincial capital of Chengdu. Although a reinforced concrete weir has replaced Li Bing's original weighted bamboo baskets, the layout of the infrastructure remains the same and is still in use today to irrigate over 5,300 km² (2,000 sq mi) of land in the region.

Warring States-era architecture had several definitive aspects. City walls, used for defence, were made longer, and indeed several secondary walls were also sometimes built to separate the different districts. Versatility in federal structures was emphasised, to create a sense of authority and absolute power. Architectural elements such as high towers, pillar gates, terraces, and high buildings amply conveyed this.

Stone slab with twelve small seal characters, affirming that it is an auspicious moment for Qin Shi Huang to ascend to the throne, as the country is united and no men will be dying along the road. The text reads 海内皆臣，歲登成熟，道毋飢人

Religion

The dominant religious belief in China during the reign of the Qin, and, in fact, during much of early imperial China, was focused on the shen (roughly translating to 'spirits' or 'gods'), yin ('shadows'), and the realm they were said to live in. The Chinese offered animal sacrifices in an attempt to contact this other world, which they believed to be parallel to the earthly one. The dead were said to have simply moved from one world to the other. The rituals mentioned, as well as others, served two purposes: to ensure that the dead journeyed and stayed in the other realm, and to receive blessings from the spirit realm.

Religious practices were usually held in local shrines and sacred areas, which contained sacrificial altars. During a sacrifice or other ritual, the senses of all participants and witnesses would be dulled and blurred with smoke, incense, and music. The lead sacrificer would fast and meditate before a sacrifice to further blur his senses and increase the likelihood of perceiving otherworldly phenomena. Other participants were similarly prepared, though not as rigorously.

Such blurring of the senses was also a factor in the practice of spirit intermediaries, or mediumship. Practitioners of the art would fall into trances or dance to perform supernatural tasks. These people would often rise to power as a result of their art – Luan Da, a Han dynasty medium, was granted rule over 2,000 households. Han historian Sima Qian was scornful of such practices, dismissing them as foolish trickery.

Divinations to predict or influence the future were another form of religious practice during the Qin, including the ancient practice of cracking bones or turtle shells to gain knowledge of the future. The forms of divination which sprang up during early imperial China were diverse, though observing natural phenomena was a common method. Comets, eclipses, and droughts were considered omens of things to come.

Etymology of China

-210

GRECO
BACTRIANS

PAR-
THIA

Pazyryk
culture

SAKAS

Tagar
culture

Sagly
culture

Shule

Khotan

DONGHU

SABEANS

Ordos
culture

Dian
culture

JIN

YUEZHI

Subeshi

Wusun

SELEUCID
EMPIRE

MAURYA
EMPIRE

QIN
DYNASTY

XIONGNU

PTOLE-
MIES

MEROË

Scythians

Sarmatians

class=notpageimage|

The Qin state and main polities in 221 BC, with the capital Xianyang ().

The name Qin is believed to be the origin of the modern name for the country in many European languages, China. The word probably made its way into the Indo-Aryan languages first as Cina or Sina, and then into Greek and Latin as Sinai or Thinai. It was then borrowed into English and French as China and Chine. This etymology is dismissed by some scholars, who suggest that Sina in Sanskrit evolved much earlier before the Qin. However, the preceding state of Qin was itself founded in the 9th century BC. Jin, a state during the Zhou dynasty until the 4th century BC, is another possible origin. Others have argued for the names of other polities during the early period as the ultimate origin, including Jing (荆), another name for Chu.

Government and military

Terracotta Army at the museum of the grave of Qin Shi Huang

Qin warriors and horse from the Terracotta Army

The Qin government was highly bureaucratic, and was administered by a hierarchy of officials, all serving the First Emperor. The Qin put into practice the teachings of Han Fei, allowing the First Emperor to control all of his territories, including those recently conquered. All aspects of life were standardised, from measurements and language to more practical details, such as the length of chariot axles.

The states made by the emperor were assigned to officials dedicated to the task rather than placing the burden on people from the royal family. Zheng and his advisors also introduced new laws and practices that ended aristocratic rule in China, fully replacing it with a centralised, bureaucratic government. A supervisory system, the Censorate was introduced to monitor and check the powers of administrators and officials at each level of government. The Qin instituted a permanent system of ranks and rewards, consisting of twenty ranks based on the number of enemies killed in battle or commanding victorious units. Ranks were not hereditary unless a soldier died heroically in battle, whereby the soldier's rank will be inherited by his family. Each rank was assigned a specified number of dwellings, slaves and land, and ranks could be used to remit judicial punishments.

The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, both the military and government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. Later Chinese dynasties emulated the Qin government for its efficiency, despite its being condemned by Confucian philosophy. There were instances of abuse, however, with one example having been recorded in the "Records of Officialdom". A commander named Hu ordered his men to attack peasants in an attempt to increase the number of "bandits" he had killed; his superiors, likely eager to inflate their records as well, allowed this.

Qin Shi Huang also improved the strong military, despite the fact that it had already undergone extensive reforms. The military used the most advanced weaponry of the time. It was first used mostly in bronze form, but by the 5th century BC, kingdoms such as Chu and Qin were using iron and/or steel swords. The demand for this metal resulted in improved bellows. The crossbow had been introduced in the 5th century BC and was more powerful and accurate than the composite bows used earlier. It could also be rendered ineffective by removing two pins, which prevented enemies from capturing a working crossbow.

The Qin also used improved methods of transportation and tactics. The state of Zhao had first replaced chariots with cavalry in 307 BC, but the change was swiftly adopted by the other states because cavalry had greater mobility over the terrain of China.

Qin Shi Huang developed plans to fortify his northern border, to protect against nomadic invasions. The result was the initial construction of what later became the Great Wall of China, which was built by joining and strengthening the walls made by the feudal lords, which would be expanded and rebuilt multiple times by later dynasties, also in response to threats from the north. Another project built during his rule was the Terracotta Army, intended to protect the emperor after his death. The Terracotta Army was inconspicuous due to its underground location, and was not discovered until 1974.

Writing reform

The written language of the Qin was logographic, as that of the Zhou had been. It was more conservative of earlier graphic forms than more evolved local scripts in other regions. As one of his most influential achievements in life, prime minister Li Si standardised the writing system to be of uniform size and shape across the whole country. This would have a unifying effect on the Chinese culture for thousands of years. He is also credited with creating the small seal script style, which serves as a basis for modern Chinese and is still used in cards, posters, and advertising.

Penal policy

While Shang Yang, and maybe Han Fei were influential for Qin administration, the Qin abandoned Shang Yang's harsh penal policy before unification in 221, becoming more conservatively Confucian as compared with the Mohists. While generally characterized as harsh by modern standards, the punishments as laid out in the legal code often went unenforced. The Qin frequently expelled criminals to colonies, or pardoned them in exchange for fines, labour, or a demotion in aristocratic rank, even for capital offences. Criminals were sometimes given amnesties and only incurred punishment upon recidivism. Han-era writer Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BC) considered Qin officials and taxes severe, but did not characterise punishments as such; in fact, Dong criticized the Qin system for its inability to punish criminals.

Qin law was primarily administrative, with penal law included alongside ritual orthopraxy. Like most ancient societies, the Qin did not separate administration and jurisprudence, but did have concepts like intent, judicial procedure, defendant rights, retrial requests, and a distinction between different kinds of law (common law and statutory law). Comparative model manuals guided penal legal procedures based on real-life situations, with publicly named wrongs linked to punishments. But while some Qin penal laws deal with infanticide or other unsanctioned harm of children, it primarily concerned theft; it does not much deal with murder. By contrast, detailed rules and "endless paperwork" tightly regulate grain, weights, measures, and official documents.

Sovereigns

See also: Qin (state) § Rulers

Qin Shi Huang was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor", after unifying China in 221 BC. That year is therefore generally taken by historians to be the start of the "Qin dynasty" which lasted for 14 years until 207, when it was cut short by civil wars.

No.	Posthumous name	Personal name	Reign
1	Shi Huangdi	Zheng (政)	221–210  BC
2	Er Shi Huangdi	Huhai (胡亥)	210–207 BC
3	—	Ziying (子嬰)	207 BC

Imperial family tree

An edict in bronze from the reign of Qin Er Shi

Qin dynasty
See family tree of the kings of Qin Zheng 政 259–210 BC King of Qin 秦王 r. 247–221 BC Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 r. 221–210 BC 1 18 or 25 (disputed) Fusu 扶蘇 d. 210 BC Huhai 胡亥 229–207 BC Qin Er Shi 秦二世 r. 210–207 BC Ziying 子嬰 d. 206 BC Qin San Shi 秦三世 r. 207 BC

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• Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. JSTOR 1170959.
• Tanner, Harold (2010). China: A History. Hackett. ISBN 978-1-60384-203-7.
• Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243278. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
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• Wade, Geoff (May 2009). "The Polity of Yelang (夜郎) and the Origin of the Name 'China'" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 188. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
• Xue, Deshu; Qi, Xiuqian (2019). "Research on Supervision System in Ancient China and Its Contemporary Reference" (PDF). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. 319.
• Jiang, Tao (2021). Origins of Moral-political Philosophy in Early China. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-760347-5.

Further reading

• Breslin, Thomas A. (2001). Beyond Pain: The Role of Pleasure and Culture in the Making of Foreign Affairs. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-97430-5 – via Google Books.
• Ivanhoe, Philip J.; Van Norden, Bryan W., eds. (2005). Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Hackett. ISBN 978-0-87220-780-6 – via Google Books.
• Korolkov, Maxim (2022). The Imperial Network in Ancient China: The Foundation of Sinitic Empire in Southern East Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-65428-3.

External links

• Media related to Qin Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons